Prior to the beginning of the uprisings in the Middle East, cultural reasons were put forth to provide explanations why this region had not experienced democratic reforms similar to those in Latin America and Eastern Europe. Arab traditions, cultures and Islam were seen as obstacles holding back the Arab peoples from development, turning them into obedient and static subjects of the dictators ruling them. Following the 9/11 attacks, the Middle East was further demonized for its violence, lack of freedom of speech, and human rights. In the media, one could easily find arguments against backwardness of the Arab culture and Islam with its various forms. The most striking point was that not only was the Middle East incapable of modernity (modernity by Western standards), but due to its traditions, also resistant to it. The Orientalist discourse had returned to explain region’s problems and the 9/11 attacks.
The Middle East has had its share of experiences with Europe and its culture. British and the French occupations of the Arab lands were followed by creation of nation-states. New identities were formed and colonial practices put to use. Independence followed but the problems persisted. Wars, famines, dislocations, terrorism, and dictators, to name a few, dominated people’s lives. Pan-Arabism, state-based nationalisms, communism and socialism were meant to make things better but led to military defeats and inter-state warfare. Political Islam, Salafists and Muslim Brotherhoods across the region are the new faces promising better days ahead.
Cold War, like its predecessor the World War II, ended with Western victory over the communist bloc. Communism had offered an alternative modernity but it, too, failed against democracy, freedom and liberty. Those who held the western modernity dear to their hearts, saw another triumph against tyranny and another form of eastern resistance had collapsed. Since 1991, more countries have been opened up to democratic ideals, if not practices. Former communist states have also attempted to become western such as Poland, and Czech Republic while Georgia and Ukraine have tried to enter the NATO. Francis Fukuyama’s book titled End of History further argues that Western modernity has become the peak of human civilization.
Today, as we witness the uprisings taking place in the Middle East, I believe the old discourse of Orientalism has returned. Middle East was blamed as hosting cultures and religious forms of Islam that were incompatible with democracy. Many can proudly object this claim by pointing at the uprisings and people’s cries for freedom, justice and dignity. This is where I think the duality of these revolutions lie.
From the point of western modernity, Oriental Middle East is violent, barbaric and inherently opposed to ideas of enlightenment and reason. The Arab Spring can be a good indicator that culture and religion do not have much to do with political differences between nations. However, I claim that the Arab Spring actually works for the benefit of Orientalism and strengthens it. Since Tunisia’s revolution, Middle East has grappled with violence and terror. Libya, Bahrain, and still ongoing conflict in Syria show that Middle East is not the safest region of the world. Thousands have died since the inception of the uprisings in 2011. In addition to the violence, fears of fundamentalist or radical religious groups are on the rise. In Tunisia and Egypt, religion has been coming into the political arena in one form or another. We are seeing violence, fundamentalism and a mirage-like promise of democracy after decades of tyranny. By claiming that the Arab Spring can bring democracy, equality and freedom, we are essentially making the claim that other parts of the world need to or will have to embrace western modernity. How modern (western) of us to hope that after the fall of the dictators, the Middle East will finally see the light of day.
On the one hand, there is the prospect of a better future, a democratic future where the voices of the people can be heard louder than before. On the other, we are struck by violence, religious revival and substituting 20th century secular modernity with that of religion. We have yet to see the results.
RECOMMENDED READINGS
Edward Said, Orientalism (Vintage, 1979)
Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge University Press, 2000)
Mahmoud Mamdani, Good Muslim Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror (Three Rivers Press, 2005)
Francis Fukuyama, End of History and the Last Man (Free Press, 2006)
